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MEALTIME DIFFICULTIES
Nursing Standard of Practice Protocol: Assessment and Management of Mealtime Difficulties

Elaine J. Amella, PhD, APRN, BC, FAAN

 

Evidence-Based Content - Updated January 2008

The information in this "Want to know more" section is organized according to the following major components of the NURSING PROCESS:

 

Goal

To maintain or improve nutritional intake at meals and provide a quality mealtime experience that fosters dignity and pleasure in eating, as well as respecting cultural and personal preferences, for as long as possible.

 
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Overview

Guiding Principles

A. The adequate intake of nutrients is necessary to maintain physical and emotional health.

B. Mealtime is an opportunity not only to ingest nutrients but also to maintain critical social aspects of life.

C. The social components of meals will be observed, including mealtime rituals, cultural norms, and food preferences.

D. Persons will be encouraged and assisted to self-feed for as long as possible.

E. Persons dependent in eating will be assisted with dignity.

F. End-of-life decisions by the individual or his or her proxy regarding the provision or termination of food and fluid will be respected.

G. The quality of mealtime is an indicator of quality of life and care of an individual.

 
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Background

A. Definitions

1. Feeding is "the process of getting the food from the plate to the mouth. It is a primitive sense without concern for social niceties" 1

2. Eating is "the ability to transfer food from plate to stomach through the mouth" 1. Eating involves the ability to recognize food, the ability to transfer food to the mouth, and the phases of swallowing.

3. Anorexia is characterized by a refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight. 2 May have physiological basis in the elderly.

4. Dehydration is "a fluid imbalance caused by too little fluid taken in or too much fluid lost or both." 3

5. Dysphagia is "an abnormality in the transfer of a bolus from the mouth to the stomach." 4

6. Apraxia is an inability to carry out voluntary muscular activities related to neuromuscular damage. As it relates to eating and feeding, it involves loss of the voluntary stages of swallowing or the manipulation of eating utensils.

7. Agnosia is the inability to recognize familiar items when sensory cuing is limited.

B. Etiology

Mealtime difficulties can have multiple causes from both physiological and psychological origins. Health professionals need to consider multiple etiologies and not assume that difficulties are related only to increased confusion from a cognitive decline.

1. Cognitive/neurological: Parkinson's disease; amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; dementia, especially Alzheimer's disease; stroke

2. Psychological: depression

3. Iatrogenic: lack of adaptive equipment; use of physical restraints that limit ability to move, position, or self-feed; improper chair or table surface or discrepancy of chair to table height; use of wheelchair in lieu of table chair; use of disposable dinnerware, especially for patients with cognitive or neuromuscular impairments

 
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Parameters of Assessment

A. Assessment of Older Adult and Caregivers

1. Rituals used before meals (e.g., handwashing and toilet use); dressing for dinner.

2. Blessings of food or grace, if appropriate.

3. Religious rites or prohibitions observed in preparation of food or before meal begins (e.g., Muslim, Jewish, and Seventh-Day Adventist; consult with pastoral counselor, if available).

4. Cultural or special cues: family history, especially rituals surrounding meals.

5. Preferences as to end-of-life decisions regarding withdrawal or administration of food and fluid in the face of incapacity, or request of designated health proxy; ethicist or social worker may facilitate process.

B. Assessment Instruments:

1. EdFED-Q for persons with moderate to late-stage dementia. 5

2. Katz Index of ADL for functional status. 1

3. Food diary/Meal Portion method. 6

 
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Nursing Interventions

A. Environment

1. Dining or patient room: encourage older adult to eat in dining room to increase intake, 7 personalize dining room, no treatments or other activities occurring during meals, no distractions.

2. Tableware: use of standard dinnerware (e.g., china, glasses, cup and saucer, flatware, tablecloth, napkin) versus disposable tableware and bibs.

3. Furniture: older adult seated in stable arm chair; table-appropriate height versus eating in wheelchair or in bed. 8

4. Noise level: environmental noise from music, caregivers, and television is minimal; 9 personal conversation between patient and caregiver is encouraged.

5. Music: pleasant, preferred by patient. 10,11

6. Light: adequate and nonglare-producing versus dark, shadowy, or glaring. 9

7. Contrasting background/foreground: use contrasting background and foreground colors with minimal design to aid persons with decreased vision. 12

8. Odor: food prepared in area adjacent to or in dining area to stimulate appetite. 13

9. Adaptive equipment: available, appropriate, and clean; caregivers and/or older adult knowledgeable in use; occupational therapist assists in evaluation.

B. Caregiver/Staffing

1. Provide an adequate number of well-trained staff. 14,15

2. Deliver an individualized approach to meals 16,17 including choice of food, tempo of assistance.

3. Position of caregiver relative to elder: eye contact; seating so caregiver faces elder patient in same plane. 13

4. Cueing: caregiver cues elder whenever possible with words or gestures. 18

5. Self-feeding: encouragement to self-feed with multiple methods versus assisted feeding to minimize time. 18

6. Mealtime rounds: interdisciplinary team to examine multifaceted process of meal service, environment, and individual preferences. 19

 
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Evaluation/Expected Outcomes

A. Individual

1. Corrective and supportive strategies reflected in plan of care.

2. Quality of life issues emphasized in maintaining social aspects of dining.

3. Culture, personal preferences, and end-of-life decisions regarding nutrition respected.

B. Health Care Provider

1. System disruptions at mealtimes minimized.

2. Family and staff informed and educated to patient's special needs to promote safe and effective meals.

3. Maintenance of normal meals and adequate intake for the patient reflected in care plan.

4. Competence in diet assessment; knowledge of and sensitivity to cultural norms and preferences for mealtimes reflected in care plan.

C. Institution

1. Documentation of nutritional status and eating and feeding behavior meets expected standard.

2. Alterations in nutritional status, eating and feeding behaviors assessed and addressed in a timely manner.

3. Involvement of interdisciplinary team (geriatrician, advanced practice nurse [NP/CNS], dietitian, speech therapist, dentist, occupational therapist, social worker, pastoral counselor, ethicist) appropriate and timely.

4. Nutritional, eating, and/or feeding problems modified to respect individual preferences and cultural norms.

5. Adequate number of well-trained staff who are committed to delivering knowledgeable and individualized care.

 
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Follow-up Monitoring

A. Providers' competency to monitor eating and feeding behaviors.

B. Documentation of eating and feeding behaviors.

C. Documentation of care strategies and follow-up of alterations in nutritional status and eating and feeding behaviors.

D. Documentation of staffing and staff education; availability of supportive interdisciplinary team.

 
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For Definition of Levels of Quantitative Evidence Click Here

 

Reprinted with permission from Springer Publishing Company.  Tullman, D. F., Mion, L. C., Fletcher, K., & Foreman, M. D.  (2008).  Mealtime difficulties.   In E. Capezuti, D. Zwicker, M. Mezey, & T. Fulmer (Eds.).  Evidence-based geriatric nursing protocols for best Practice (3rd ed.), (pp. 337-351). New York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.

References


1. Katz, S., Downs, T. D., Cash, H. R., & Grotz, R. C. (1970). Progress in the development of the Index of ADL. The Gerontologist, 10(1), 20–30. Evidence Level IV: Quasi-experimental Study.

2. American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

3. Weinberg, A. D., & Minaker, K. L. (1995). Dehydration: Evaluation and management in older adults. Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association. Journal of the American Medical Association, 274(19), 1552–1556.

4. Groher, M. E. (1997). Dysphagia: Diagnosis and Management (3rd ed.). Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.

5. Watson, R. (1996). The Mokken Scaling Procedure (MSP) applied to the measurement of feeding difficulty in elderly people with dementia. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 33, 385–393. Evidence Level III: Quasi-experimental Study.

6. Berrut, G., Favreau, A. M., Dizo, E., Tharreau, B., Poupin, C., & Gueringuili, M. (2002). Estimation of calorie and protein intake in aged patients: Validation of a method based on meal portions consumed. Journals of Gerontology: Medical Science, 57(1), M52–M56. Evidence Level III: Quasi-experimental Study.

7. Bates-Jensen, B. M., Schnelle, J. F., Alessi, C. A., Al Samarri, N. R., & Levy-Storm, L. (2004). The effects of staffing on in-bed times of nursing-home residents. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52(6), 931–938. Evidence Level IV: Nonexperimental Study.

8. Rappl, L., & Jones, D. A. (2000). Seating evaluation: Special problems and interventions for older adults. Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation, 16(2), 63–72. Evidence Level V: Case Report.

9. McDaniel, J. H., Hunt, A., Hackes, B., & Pope, J. F. (2001). Impact of dining room environment on nutritional intake of Alzheimer’s residents: A case study. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias, 16(5), 297–302. Evidence Level III: Quasi-experimental Study.

10. Hick-Moore, S. L. (2005). Relaxing music at mealtime in nursing homes: Effect on agitated patients with dementia. Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 31(12), 26–32. Evidence Level III: Quasi-experimental Study.

11. Watson, R., & Green, S. M. (2006). Feeding and dementia: A systematic literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 54(1), 86–94. Evidence Level I: Systematic Review.

12. Ellexson, M. T. (2004). Access to participation: Occupational therapy and low vision. Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation, 20(3), 154–172. Evidence Level IV: Nonexperimental Study.

13. Amella, E. J. (2004). Feeding and hydration issues for older adults with dementia. Nursing Clinics of North America, 39(3), 607–623. Evidence Level V: Narrative Review.

14. Chang, C., & Lin, L. (2005). Effects of a feeding skills training program on nursing assistants and dementia patients. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 14(10), 1185–1192. Evidence Level IV: Nonexperimental Study.

15. Crogan, N. L., Shultz, J. A., Adams, C. E., & Massey, L. K. (2001). Barriers to nutrition care for nursing home residents. Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 27(12), 25–31. Evidence Level IV: Nonexperimental Study.

16. Gibbs-Ward, A. J., & Keller, H. H. (2005). Mealtimes as active processes in long-term care. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 66(1), 5–11. Evidence Level IV: Nonexperimental Study.

17. Synder, Y. M., & Fjellstrom, C. (2005). Food provision and meal situation in elderly care: Outcomes in different social contexts. Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics, 18(1), 45–52. Evidence Level IV: Nonexperimental Study.

18. Simmons, S. F., & Schnelle, J. F. (2006). Feeding assistance needs of long-stay nursing home residents and staff time to provide care. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 54(6), 919–924. Evidence Level IV: Nonexperimental Study.

19. . Keller, H. H., Gibbs-Ward, A., Randall-Simpson, J., Bocock, M. A., & Dimou, E. (2006). Meal rounds: An essential aspect of quality nutrition services in long term care. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 7, 40–45. Evidence Level IV: Nonexperimental Study.

 

Last updated - February 2008

 
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